The CODE Principle — Sustainable Knowledge Management for SMEs

SMEs are often the backbone of the economy, yet they struggle with knowledge preservation and sharing in today’s rapidly changing business landscape. SMEs are not stupid and actually know that knowledge management (KM) is a crucial component for long-run competitiveness but are simply unable to set effective formal systems to capture, organize, distill and express all the insights and wisdom in their people. In this article, we explain the CODE principle, a systematic four-step framework that makes knowledge management sustainable and effective for SMEs. Tiago Forté’s „Second Brain“ concept includes the CODE principle.

The CODE principle converts personal knowledge into an organization-wide asset drawing from mature KM theories and international standards. The next sections discuss the difficulties faced by SMEs in knowledge retention, the definition of sustainable knowledge management, and elaborate on each step of the CODE process. We also highlight some legal aspects, provide some practical implementation guidelines and reflect on the future of KM in small and medium enterprises.

The Knowledge Quagmire in SME

1.1 Context and Problem

The preservation and effective sharing of internal knowledge in terms of the experience currency remains a challenge, albeit a critical one which still lacks attention by a large number of SMEs. Research indicates that about 75% of companies recognize the need to develop and protect knowledge, but only about 9% believe they are equipped to do so in a systematic way. This disconnect — commonly referred to as the “knowledge-doing” gap — results in valuable insights being lost with the departure of seasoned staff or information being trapped in silos within specialized departments.

SMEs often work with limited products and resources. The daily demands of running operations, serving customers, and nurturing innovation allow no time and no budget for implementing elaborate KM systems. This often leads many organizations to implement ad hoc documentation efforts that do not create a dependable repository of collective knowledge. Few people know (or care) about the problem which the employee is solving, they know the bottom line.

1.2 Implications of Poor Knowledge Management

The implications of not aligning knowledge with a systematic approach to complement knowledge management can be far reaching:

• Loss of Expertise – When long-serving workers leave, their accumulated tacit knowledge also goes with them. Meanwhile, the gap has significant ramifications, not only arguably impacting operational continuity, but also potentially skewing future innovation.
• The Overhead of Redundancy – Without a centralized KM system, employees spend a significant amount of time rediscovering or recreating information that others within the organization have already discussed, documented, or analyzed. On average, employees might spend 8.2 plus hours a week looking for missing knowledge or putting previously learned expertise back together again, according to research.
• Higher Risk – Without well-documented processes and best practices, businesses can repeat past failings or risk non-compliance with industry standards. This can carry legal, operational and reputational risk.

Thus, it is highly important for SMEs to have a systematic and scalable over time sustainable KM approach.

Sustainable Knowledge Management: A Conceptual Framework

2.1 What Is Sustainable Knowledge Management?

Sustainable knowledge management does not simply consist of ad hoc documentation projects or random data dumping. It is the ongoing process of identifying, capturing, and reusing the intellectual capital that is produced within a company. SMEs can develop a living framework for KM that adapts to the changing needs of the company by making KM a part of their regular processes. Rather than implementing a stop-gap measure — such as creating a wiki that people forget exists within a few months — an effective KM strategy will ensure that knowledge is consistently preserved when it would be most useful.

Look to the future: the Knowledge Tree

All the knowledge was nurtured by a team of expert thinkers who provided insight, direction, and guidance as you force-fed them all the knowledge you had gathered. This “knowledge tree” is a potent metaphor for sustainable KM: it grows slowly but surely, turns individual contributions into organization-wide wisdom, and bears the fruits of better decision-making and competitive advantage.

How to Code: the CODE Principle

3.1 Defining CODE

The CODE principle is at the root of sustainable knowledge management. CODE is an acronym that represents:

• Capture
• Organize
• Distill
• Express

While it was originally designed for individual knowledge management, this four-step process is applied on an organizational level. It offers a precise, implementable model showing SMEs how to convert unprocessed data into usable, mutually shared knowledge. “The acronym CODE stands for a 4-step process to efficiently: Capture, Organize, Distill, and Express knowledge in the organization” (as referenced by EDUCATIONARCHITECTS.ORG).

3.2 Why CODE Works for SMEs

The CODE principle is especially useful for small and medium-sized enterprises because it:

• Improves-Org Clear Path: With KM often a complex process to manage, this breakdown into stages gives teams a clearer plan to follow and make it easier to embody it in their ways of working.
• Test Reliability: As CODE creates a loop of continuous improvement. As knowledge is expressed and utilized, new understandings are gained and fed back into the cycle.
• Enables Scalability: The organizational structure of CODE can be applied to small companies with 5 employees or to larger organizations of more than 100 employees.
• Closes the Knowledge Gap: A systematic approach to capturing and sharing knowledge can help subject matter experts become less reliant on their knowledge people, reducing the risk of losing critical organizational knowledge.

The CODE Principle: A Deep Dive

Here we examine each aspect of CODE principle individually, and also discuss how SMEs could implement them in practice.

Capture 4.1: Protecting Vital Information

4.1.1 What Does It Mean to Capture

In knowledge management, systematic collection of knowledge from daily work is called capturing knowledge. This action is essential as it preserves all the information, both explicit and tacit, from disappearing in time. Explicit knowledge refers to information that has been documented, such as in documents, manuals or recorded procedures, whereas tacit knowledge is the practical experience and know-how employees gain from working hands-on.

4.1.2 CAPTURING IN PRACTICE

• Project Learnings: At conclusion of the project, Team should document learned initiatives, challenges and what worked well? This could be done either in structured debrief sessions, or by keeping a project log.
• Clients FAQ: As the employees interact with the clients, they gain knowledge about the repeatative questions and problems. In fact, the capturing of these interactions could create a useful FAQ repository.
• To transfer tacit knowledge, we can conduct employee interviews: Veteran employees have valuable tacit knowledge. Structured interviews with them can help codify this information that could be lost with turnover.

To emphasize the importance of this step, a key statistic: around 64% of IT leaders said that when employees leave the company, it results in the loss of substantial knowledge (BUSINESSWIRE.COM). As SMEs capture knowledge systematically, they build an “external memory” that retains key pieces of knowledge.

🗂️ 4.2 Organize: How to Find the Right Knowledge When Needed

4.2.1 How Organization Matters

So capturing knowledge is just half the journey from optimal functioning to being effective. A poorly structured data dump can be overwhelming and counterproductive (and is, some say, “A data dump”) Essentially, organizing knowledge it means sorting information into logical groups and storing it in accessible, centralized repository.

4.2.2 Recommended Strategies for Arranging Knowledge

• Categorization: Organizing information according to project, department, or client segments can help retrieval of the data. So a digital repository might have folders labeled “Product Development,” “Customer Service” and “Sales.”
• Tagging: Tags or keywords (e.g., #HowTo, #BestPractices, #FAQ) enable users to filter and find relevant content faster.
• Shared Repositories: Once a number of practices of collaboration have been identified the next step is using a shared knowledge base, whether an intranet, document or cloud storage, or a specialized KM tool. According to research, employees could gain back 8.2 hours per week if cleaning up or searching for information were no longer necessary (APQC.ORG).

Effective structuring not only keeps a record of knowledge, but it also cuts down time as it allows employees to easily find information that holds value for them, thus increasing their efficiency.

4.3 Distil: Take Key Insights

4.3.1 Distillation Process

Building a story is a challenging task, despite the significant amount of knowledge you have accumulated. The reason being you can not just collect documents or notes, it needs to make sense and be summarised in a fashion that it is usable.

4.3.2 How to Compress the Knowledge

• Org Cards: For long reports or project documents, it can be great to have a one-page summary of the most important parts.
• Spotlighting Key Takeaways: During meetings, designated people can note significant decisions or lessons learned, which can later be consolidated into guidelines or checklists.
• A Way to Create Checklists: When they spot repetitive or similar pieces of knowledge, condensing them into checklists makes sure key knowledge is not lost in verbose documentation.

Distillation can help hear nothing but the essential components and perceived core and unique lessons of those the team members who attend the debrief.

4.4 EXPRESS: Knowledge Sharing and Application

4.4.1 What Is It to Express?

The utterance of knowledge is the act of sharing and using the distilled insights within the organization. Which brings us to the final step where knowledge is captured and categorized and it finally becomes an asset. It turns theoretical knowledge into practical gains in work processes.

4.4.2 Knowledge Representation Methods

• Training sessions: Regularly scheduled training sessions, or “knowledge rounds,” can help to spread new insights throughout teams.
• Internal Blogs and Newsletters: Building a culture of sharing knowledge by having team members write up briefly about the latest or most relevant lessons learned.
• Mentorship Programs: Pairing seasoned employees with new hires guarantees that important tacit knowledge is transmitted through direct interaction.
• Updating SOPs: Making appropriate changes to the existing processes using new learnings or creating new SOPs to make sure all the best practices go into the book.

If knowledge is expressed, it just does not improve existing action, it also creates a feedback loop: sharing leads to more questions and insights, which is again captured. This is a cyclical process that represents the sustainability the CODE principle works toward.

Alignment Between Academia and Industry

5.1 Connecting CODE to Existing KM Theories

The steps defined in the CODE principle are closely aligned with classical knowledge management activities long recognized in scholarly literature. Traditional KM is subdivided into categories of activities such as knowledge capture, storage, refinement, and dissemination. The CODE principle is a structured, modern version of these activities.

• Capture: Similar to the first phase of knowledge creation in classical KM models, we collect information from multiple sources.
• Organize: Acknowledge the necessity for systematic classification and storage, which is the basis for knowledge retrieval.
• Distill: Similar to the stage of refinement or processing, when the raw data is examined and filtered to retain only the most helpful elements.
• Express: For example: Corresponds to the dissemination phase, in which processed data is shared and put into practice.

5.2 International Norms and Best Practices

International standards (e.g., ISO 30401:2018) also provide useful guidance for building adequate knowledge management systems. In short, these standards stress the need for clearly defined processes to create, curate, and share knowledge, which are fundamentally underpinned by the CODE model. By leveraging CODE, SMEs are streamlining their internal processes and transitioning toward globally recognized best practices.

Moreover, a number of credible references have emphasized on the advantages of well-structured KM:

• APQC.ORG helps readers understand the time and efficiency savings that flow directly from rigorously organized knowledge systems.
• MAXWELLSCI.COM and EC-EUROPA-EU.LIBGUIDES.COM both particularly highlight the conceptual convergence of contemporary KM practices with both academic and industry standards.

This establishes the CODE principle as not only innovative but also applicable to the methodologies most widely-used in practice.

Knowledge Management: Legal and Regulatory Considerations

Deploying a knowledge management system is not just a technical or operational challenge; it also entails dealing with significant legal and regulatory terrain. There are also different legal considerations for SMEs to factor into their KM practices to make sure they are compliant with data protection laws, intellectual property rights and industry-specific regulations.

6.1 Protection of Data and Privacy

• GDPR Compliance:
  Any system for cumulating and structuring knowledge must take data protection into account, in the EU. This also involves protecting any personal or sensitive information that could unintentionally be included from employee outputs.
• Consent and Clear Purpose:
  And if any personal data (e.g., profiles of experts or insights related to their performance) is collected, SMEs should get the explicit consent of the individuals concerned and use the information strictly for internal use.
• Internal Policies:
  A strong privacy policy that describes how knowledge is posted and who has access to it protects both the company and its employees.

6.2 IP and Ownership

• Ownership of Content:
  Figuring out to whom knowledge generated by employees belongs should be addressed in employment contracts. In general, knowledge created while working for a company belongs to the company, but explicit agreements can help avoid disputes.
• Respect for External Sources:
  The knowledge-database often combines knowledge from various external texts (such as research articles and industry data) which needs citation and copyright compliance. Not only does it respect rights of intellectual property, but it also lends credibility to the organization’s KM system.

6.3 Confidentiality and Trade Secrets

• Classifying Information:
  Not all knowledge deserves to be spread around without reservation. SMEs need to have protocols to classify information by sensitivity. For example, proprietary formulas, client data, or strategic plans should be only available to those who need to know.
• Security Measures:
  Key to safeguarding confidential information while allowing knowledge sharing throughout the organization is implementing access controls and secure storage solutions.

6.4 Regulatory Compliance

Regulators in Specific Industries:
Certain industries like finance or healthcare have very strict record-keeping requirements. SMEs in these sectors need to make sure that their KM systems comply with relevant regulations, such as FDA regulations in pharmaceuticals or ISO specifications in manufacturing.

6.5 Liability Considerations

Paper Trails as Legal Shields:
Well-documented procedures and records of training will be available for you as data in case of a dispute or audit and will serve as proof of due diligence. On the other hand, insufficient recorded know-how can subject an at whom to added lawful peril, mostly in the points of basic safety polices or regulatory troubles.

This inclusion of legal considerations in their KM strategy not only helps SMEs to safeguard themselves from possible legal risks but also adds credibility and robustness to their knowledge management systems.

Implementing CODE in practice: Action guidelines for SMEs

SMEs will find the following guidelines useful to implement the CODE principle into practical steps. The steps below are meant to be scalable and applicable to organizations of different sizes and resource availability.

7.1 Step 1 — Define KM Objectives, Formulate a Team

• Identify Critical Knowledge:
  To begin with, identify which areas of expertise are most critical to the organization’s success. Such information could involve operational procedures, customer relations insights or product development information.
• Create a KM Team or Designate a Champion:
  Appoint a few or someone to lead the KM initiative. You are not required for full time in this role, just someone passionate about organizing and beginner knowledge of sharing things.
• Define Clear Objectives:
  Establish measurable goals towards implementing the KM system—like cut down on time spent in searching for information shared either through internal employee networks or different platforms, creating a seamless onboarding process for new hires, etc.

7.2 Step 2 – Information Log Routine Knowledge

• Embrace Capture in daily routines:
  You should help employees to capture knowledge as part of their normal work. End-of-platform debriefs, meaningful notes in shared documents, and recording succinct insights after client interactions, are relatively simple mechanisms that can prove to be enormously valuable.
• Leverage Accessible Tools:
  Use the everyday tools people have at their fingertips, like Google Docs, Microsoft Teams, or even a shared notebook system to make knowledge capture as frictionless as possible. An entry that shares an important tip you learned from this can be written down in 15 seconds, but over time this forms a huge store of knowledge.
• For both explicit and tacit knowledge, document everything:
  Formally documenting this knowledge can be helpful, but don’t underestimate tacit knowledge capture methods like interviews with experienced employees or informal knowledge-sharing sessions.

7.3 Step 3 – Organize Smartly

• Establish a Simple Taxonomy:
  Don’t Make The Mistake Of OVER-ENGINEERING Your Knowledge Base. Begin with wide ~categories and narrow them down as you go. For example, you could structure content by department, project, or critical business function.
• Utilize Tags and Metadata:
  Besides folder structures, takeaway systems should also be implemented for quick filtering (ex: #HowTo, #LessonsLearned, #FAQ).
• Choose the Right Repository:
  Choose a repository that is accessible to all employees, whether it be an intranet dedicated to KM, a cloud-base KM tool or a shared drive. The aim is that no one should have to “go hunting” for information when it is needed.

7.4 Step 4 — Refine and Refresh Information

• Implement Regular Reviews:
  Schedule regular reviews (monthly or quarterly) where the KM champion or group sorts through captured stuff and drills out insights and cleans out content.
• Adopt Progressive Summarization:
  Or rather, this technique involves revising notes several times to get the essence. A long meeting transcript, for instance, can be reduced to bullet points outlining what was decided and when.
• Combine Redundant Insights:
  If more than one entry covers the same topics, combine them into a single, cohesive guideline or checklist. By reducing clutter and highlighting only the most actionable knowledge, this method streamlines the information available to the employees.

7.5 Step 5 – Share and Express Knowledge

• Integrate Knowledge Sharing in Meetings:
  In meetings with your team, have regular “knowledge rounds” where one team member presents something new they’ve learned, or a success story they’ve read about from the knowledge base.
• Make Use of Internal Communication Channels:
  Utilize internal newsletters, blog posts or short video updates to share important findings throughout the organization.
• Use that knowledge to make process improvements:
  Update your SOPs or process documents regularly with learnings. When employees understand that their contributions lead directly to operational improvements, they will be more engaged in KM initiatives.
• Enable Sharing Across Departments:
  Encourage knowledge transfers across departments by hosting inter-team workshops or cross-departmental training sessions.

7.6 Step 6 — Incentivize and Sustain the Knowledge-Sharing Culture

• Recognize Contributions and Reward Them:
  Create incentive for employees who participate in contributing to the knowledge by recognizing them. This can be using Rewards, verbal recognition or even integrate with preformance evaluation and reward programs KM tasks.
• Lead by Example:
  Leadership must lead by example, sharing their knowledge and using the knowledge base. When management embodies those behaviors, it makes a positive impression on the entire organization.
• Embed KM into Day-to-Day Operations:
  Integrate KM tasks (e.g., updating documentation, reviewing new contributions) into normal work routines. These practices develop into a part of the company’s culture, thus maximizing sustainability over time.
• Communicate the Value:
  Often share success stories highlighting how they utilized effective KM for better efficiency, lesser onboarding times, or solving problems as a whole. This substantiates the pragmatic advantages of CODE approach.

Implementing these steps will help SMEs cumulatively establishing a strong, sustainable KM framework enabling them to foster collective intelligence using CODE, and turning disorganized insights of individuals into a unified enterprise resource.

CODE in Action: Evaluating Impact, Overcoming Challenges, and Shaping the Future

8.1 The CODE Principle — How Well Does It Work?

Although the CODE principle offers a comprehensive approach, its efficacy requires constant assessment and adaptation. SMEs should ask themselves:

• What is being done to capture knowledge on a daily basis?
• Is the structure readily understood and easy to follow?
• Is the distilled insight actually something you could action now that you have seen it?
• How is that knowledge articulated and implemented to improve operations?

For instance, you might look for metrics like reduced search times, faster onboarding processes, or lower error or failure rates as evidence of your KM system being effective. Nonetheless, qualitative comments are also important for refining and evolving the process.

8.2 Challenges for Implementation

However, despite its clear structure, the CODE principle is not free of pitfalls:

• Participation Fatigue:
  Employees will enthusiastically support KM initiatives at first, but lose interest if they cannot see the benefits or outcome to themselves.
• Information Overload:
  If distillation isn’t effective, you end up with an overwhelming repository. The Distil step is especially important in order to reduce this risk.
• Quality Control:
  Not everything you capture will be right or relevant. You need regular reviews, and a well-defined curation process, to ensure that only the most salient insights remain.
• Tacit Knowledge Limitations:
  It is sometimes hard to codify all experiential insights. Mentorship and on-the-job training can be added to the CODE framework to cover these gaps.

8.3 Organizational Culture Alignment

In order for CODE to work, it is essential to be embedded in the culture of the company. These organizations will have a culture of sharing stories that need to be adapted into an intentional written, documented form. On the other hand, technology-enabled companies that experience information silos may find by applying the CODE principle, the barriers between departments disappear. Regardless, it is under the purview of leadership to model and support the actions that are being sought after.

8.4 LONG-TERM SUSTAINABILITY AND CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT

Any KM system which is sustainable is not a static system. It has to evolve to adapt to shifts in organizational structure, technology, and business processes. SMEs must also resolve to review the functioning of their KM system from time to time:

• Annual Reviews:
  Assess how well the CODE process works, where to improve.
• Feedback Mechanisms:
  Ask employees how usable they find the knowledge base and change tools or processes as needed.
• Scalability Considerations:
  As the business matures, the KM system needs to evolve to tackle more complex problems—whether that translates to adding new technologies or restructuring internal processes.

It helps to keep the KM system relevant and in line with the organization’s changing objectives.

8.5 The Balance of Effort vs Benefit

It takes time to implement a systematic KM process with CODE. But very often the initial costs are dwarfed by the benefits, including reduced operational inefficiencies, faster onboarding and fewer repeated errors. As suggested by a study, triumphant knowledge transfer can increase productivity and even strengthen employee retention (SHRM.ORG). SMEs establish a solid foundation by documenting and disseminating know-how, defending themselves from their movement or unexpected obstacles.

8.6 Future Topics and Continuous Learning

Our principles as outlined in the CODE concept are a solid base for further deepening knowledge management. After settling onto the core cycle, organizations can branch into adjacent practices like:

• Knowledge Mapping:
  Frontiers and connections across various knowledge domains and big ideas.
• AI and Collaborative Platforms:
  Using high-tech tools for knowledge retrieval, trend analysis and predicting where more insights might be needed.
• Enhanced Metrics and KPIs:
  Building metrics that more accurately measure the influence of KM on business results.

These subjects are both natural sites of extension for the CODE framework and potential spaces where SMEs could transform into learning organizations that continuously modify their competitive advantage through learning.

Concluding Thoughts

Overall, the CODE principle provides SMEs and simple step-by-step guidance for transforming isolated individual knowledge into a repeatable, growing and sustainable body of organizational knowledge. The Key Steps to Become a Knowledge-Driven Company — By following these four steps—Capture, Organize, Distill, and Express—companies can tackle the challenges of knowledge loss, inefficiency, and reliance on key individuals.

The CODE framework is not without its challenges in implementation. It takes a daily shift in practice, a commitment to ongoing review, and leadership engagement to build a culture of knowledge sharing. But doing this is also so worth it with the substantial benefits: operational efficiency, better decision-making, more engaged employees and, in the end, a sustainable competitive advantage.

The importance of effective management of knowledge as a driver for success can only be emphasised further as SMEs grow and thrive in a fast-paced and competitive environment. The CODE principle does this with an overarching framework and also closely mirrors world best practices and standards. This also ensures that companies not only protect their intellectual assets but also adhere to data protection and industry-specific requirements by incorporating legal and other regulations throughout the process.

As KM continues to evolve, propelled by the rise of new technologies and the refinement of methodologies, one can only foresee that the CODE principle will continue to be a relevant and empowering tool for SMEs. As organizations evolve by leveraging this foundation, they will be able to uncover new approaches to knowledge mining, collaborative learning, data-driven decisions, and more.

In a data-driven world, embedding a structured knowledge management (KM) system like CODE across an SME can crystallise its disparate insights as a collective brain trust. Not only does this mitigate the risks of knowledge loss, but it allows employees to leverage shared acumen, foster innovation, and, as a result, secure the enterprise's sustainable future.

I encourage you to try the CODE principle in your organisation as you strive to create a more resilient and efficient knowledge management system, and to share how you're doing. This not only adds to your competitive edge but also to the growing realm of best practices in sustainable knowledge management for SMEs.

With the CODE principle embedded in your daily habit, the know-how in your organization can transform from dispersed individual expertise to a shared possession, offering a recipe for a distinctive competitive advantage that lasts beyond change and growth.

References:

Schiedermair et al. (2023) – Wissensmanagement in KMU – Kriterien zur Identifikation von internen Schlüsselpersonen. Zeitschrift für wirtschaftlichen Fabrikbetrieb, 118(6), 403–407. DOI: 10.1515/zwf-2023-1087

Foli, S., & Edvardsson, I. R. (2022) – A systematic literature review on knowledge management in SMEs: current trends and future directions. (Open Access via PMC) DOI: 10.1007/s11301-022-00299-0

Jayawickrama et al. (2019) – Knowledge retention in ERP implementations: the context of UK SMEs. Production Planning & Control, 30(10–12), 1032–1047. DOI: 10.1080/09537287.2019.1582107

Doan, Q. M., Rosenthal-Sabroux, C., & Grundstein, M. (2011) – A reference model for knowledge retention within small and medium-sized enterprises. In Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing (KMIS), SciTePress. DOI: 10.5220/0003632003060311

Cheong, R. K. F., & Tsui, E. (2011) – The roles and values of personal knowledge management: An exploratory study. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems, 41(2), 132–143. DOI: 10.1108/03055721111134701

Hari, S., Egbu, C., & Kumar, B. (2004) – Knowledge capture in small and medium enterprises in the construction industry: challenges and opportunities. In Proc. 20th Annual ARCOM Conference, Vol. 2, 847–855

Durst, S., & Wilhelm, S. (2012) – Knowledge management and succession planning in SMEs. Journal of Knowledge Management, 16(4), 637–649. DOI: 10.1108/13673271211246194

Also Recommended Reading:

• The PARA Method: Organizing Knowledge Effectively in Enterprises – This article explains how the PARA method streamlines digital knowledge organization. https://fehlau.de/2025/02/18/the-para-method-organizing-knowledge-effectively-in-enterprises/
• Reinventing Knowledge Management for the New Digital Age – This article explores modern approaches to transforming raw data into strategic insights in today’s digital era. https://fehlau.de/2025/03/06/reinventing-knowledge-management-for-the-new-digital-age/
• Standards and Legal Requirements in Knowledge Management – This article outlines key standards and legal frameworks for ensuring compliant and effective knowledge management. https://fehlau.de/2025/03/04/standards-and-legal-requirements-in-knowledge-management/

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